NATIONAL
STANDARDS FOR SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHERS
BACKGROUND
For several
decades, National Council for the Social Studies has been formulating and
announcing standards for the preparation of social studies teachers in both
comprehensive social studies and the single disciplines that are typically
included under the social studies umbrella. The standards have been issued in
approximate five-year cycles, the initial version of this document was released
in 1997. This version is a slight revision of that effort. The 1997 standards,
and this revision, are very different from those of previous versions and they
are different in two ways; whereas earlier versions prescribed programmatic
components (courses, for example) that should be provided for prospective social
studies teachers in their teacher preparation programs, fifteen of these twenty
standards describe the academic content that those who complete social studies
teacher education programs (comprehensive social studies and any of the single
disciplines) should know and be able to teach. In short, these standards (1)
emphasize subject matter knowledge and the ability to teach it, and (2) focus
on the professional performance of those individuals whom a teacher education
institution recommends for licenses. These two shifts in focusto a greater
emphasis on academic social studies content and toward performance-based
assessment are consistent with general trends in teacher education; the
national move toward greater accountability for schools, teachers, and teacher
education programs; and parallel efforts of state teacher licensure offices,
the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC), the
National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE), the
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS), and other subject
matter professional teacher associations
CONTEXTS
The
Standards-Setting Context Although this standards document is a stand-alone
publication of National Council for the Social Studies, the standards described
in it were developed and designed to fit into a broad
national context
with many levels and facets. That context includes:
1.
The
general United States-wide push toward more rigorous content standards for
students and greater school accountability for student learning;
2.
National
and state-level regulations and legislation concerning student, school, and
teacher standards;
3.
State-level
teacher licensing criteria and procedures;
4.
The
multi-state Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC)
endeavor;
5.
NCATE
accreditation of teacher education units and programs at colleges and
universities;
6.
The
standards setting and applying processes of the National Board for Professional
Teaching Standards (NBPTS);
7.
The development of subject matter standards
for students and teachers in content fields outside of social studies
(mathematics and science, for example);
8.
The
development of subject matter standards for students in social studies (general
social studies, history, geography, civics and government, economics, and
psychology);
9.
The
existence of previous NCSS standards for social studies teachers.
The standards
described and explained in the document, especially the twenty subject matter
standards, are extensions of each of these nine developments. They are the
National Council for the Social Studies response to the questions, In the
context of all of these developments, what should social studies teachers know,
what should they be able to do, and what dispositions should they possess?
Brief explanations of these nine contexts follow:
1.
Although
Americans have always been concerned about what and how much pre-K-12 students
are learning and how well schools are teaching, these concerns have increased
over the last two decades. The concerns are epitomized by the persistent
demands from all segments of society that schools, teachers, parents, and
students be held more accountable for what students should and do learn from
year to year and in order to graduate; and by the pervasive waves of testing of
students, teachers, and schools nationally, in every state, and in nearly all
communities. At the center of these concerns and calls for accountability and testing
is a need for determining just what it is that students should learn in schools,
what it is that teachers should be teaching, and what it is that schools and
society should expect of both students and teachers.
2.
The
multiple pushes toward more rigorous subject matter standards for students and
greater school accountability for student learning have been implemented nation-wide
in the form of new federal and state regulations and legislation that have put
into place higher standards for students, teachers, and schools. These rules
and statutes specify in more demanding fashion what students, teachers,
schools,
and states must do and they identify sanctions to be imposed on those students,
teachers, and schools that do not measure up. Central to all these rules and
statutes is the determination of what subject matter and how much of it
students should be held accountable for learning, teachers should be held
accountable for teaching, and schools should be held accountable for providing.
3.
One
major aspect of the more-rigorous-rules-and-statutes phenomenon has been state-by-state
enactment of new, more specific, and more demanding requirements for teacher
licensure and more precise and tighter procedures to see that those
requirements are enforced upon both applicants for state licenses and the colleges
and universities that prepare and recommend the applicants to the state. At the
heart of these rules is the identification of the knowledge, competencies, and
dispositions that beginning teachers should be expected to possess and
demonstrate in order to qualify for a license. The twenty subject matter standards
of this document constitute NCSS’s effort to identify that subject matter.
4.
Many
states, as they have moved toward new and more demanding require- Introduction
ments for teacher licensing and tighter procedures to assure that those
requirements are enforced, have joined forces to formulate common sets of
licensing expectations. Working through the Education Commission of the States,
state boards of education, departments of education, and licensing agencies in
more than forty states have joined as partners in the Interstate New Teacher
Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) to formulate ten common “principles”
that describe what new teachers should be expected to know and be able to do,
and what dispositions they should possess. The INTASC partners have drafted
examples of ways that individual states can apply these principles to specific
subject matter fields (mathematics, science, reading, language arts, social
studies), and to grade-level licensing categories (early childhood, middle
childhood). The over-all goal of the INTASC effort is common, rigorous, and
compatibly enforced licensing standards for new teachers across most states.
The standards for social studies teachers that constitute this document address
each of the ten INTASC principles and they are written in a format that is
consistent with INTASC wording. Because the primary goal of these standards is
to identify the subject matter that a beginning social studies teacher should
know and be able to teach, the standards focus to a very great extent on INTASC
Principle One: The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry,
and structures of the discipline(s) he or she teaches and can create learning
experiences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for students. Only
the Pedagogical Standards of this document directly address INTASC Principles
Two though Ten, and they do so only briefly.
5.
As
states have been moving toward more rigorous standards for students, teachers,
and schools, the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education
(NCATE), the national professional organization that accredits colleges and
university units that prepare teachers, has reformulated and made more rigorous
both its standards for assessing teacher preparation programs and the procedures
by which these new standards are applied to institutions. New standards and
procedures were set in place in 1987 and were refined and strengthened in 1992
and again in the year 2000. The revision of 2000 significantly increased the
emphasis on teacher subject matter knowledge and formulated a closer tie
between NCATE standards and subject matter standards such as those of this
document.These two developments in the NCATE standards and procedures revision
process tie directly to the social studies teacher standards described in this
document. The twenty social studies subject matter standards for teachers
identify the subject matter that beginning social studies teachers should know
and be able to teach, and they require that beginning teachers be able to
demonstrate their knowledge and skill through performance evidence. Also in
recent years, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS),
an independent national voluntary standards-setting organization that was
established following the report A Nation Prepared: Teachers for the 21st
Century in 1986 by the Carnegie Task Force on Teaching as a Profession (New York:
Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy), has developed criteria and a
procedure for identifying especially capable experienced teachers. Teachers
volunteer to undergo NBPTS review, and those who are judged to have met the
standards are designated “National Board Certified.” A number ofstates have
paid or are planning to pay national board certified teachers salary supplements
for being so certified. The standards of this document are compatible and
closely aligned with those of the NBPTS in the area of “history-social
studies.” Because of that alignment, beginning teachers who meet these NCSS
national standards are already in line
to pursue NBPTS certification, if they choose to do so, as they gain
experience.
6.
As
educators and citizens have moved toward more vigorous subject matter standards
for students, teachers, and schools, professional experts in content areas
besides social studies have responded to the challenge, and have formulated and
begun applying new standards in their various fields. Mathematics leaders were
among the first to act and science folks have followed closely, as have others.
So, these social studies standards for teachers have parallels in other subject
matter fields, and national professional organizations in those fields are
applying their standards in ways that parallel these efforts for social
studies. Because of the nature of social studies content content that can be
seen as both a broad interdisciplinary field of study and as separate
disciplines unlike the way in which standards were developed for mathematics
and science, these social studies standards for teachers were developed
subsequent to and to a degree separate from social studies subject matter
standards for students. The mathematics and science standards for students and
for teachers were developed as inter-connected steps in common efforts; the
social studies standards for students and for teachers were developed by
different groups, although they closely align. (More is explained on this point
next.)
Social Studies and the Nature of Learning
Although
suggestions about how social studies should be taught are beyond the scope of
this document, the subject matter standards for social studies teachers that
are presentedassume that social studies should be taught in manners that are
consistent with (1) a constructivist view of learning, and (2) the principles
of teaching social studies that have been identified in previous NCSS
publications as “essential characteristics of powerful social studies.” Each of
these is elaborated upon below.
Constructivist Learning
A constructivist
view of learning describes learning as an intellectual process in which
learners develop what they know by fitting new ideas together with ideas they
have already learned from previous experience, and they do this fitting
together in their own unique ways. In the process of making these intellectual
constructions, learners are influenced by the social and intellectual
environments in which they find themselves.As a result, because much learning
occurs in schools and classrooms, these settings affect both how and what
learners learn. This constructivist learning process is often explained by
using Jean Piaget’s concepts of adaptation, assimilation, and accommodation.
When this explanation is provided in a school context, it can be described as
follows: Learners see or hear something in their school environment (or
experience it in some other way), interpret that new experience based on what
they already know, and come to a personal understanding by connecting the new
experience with their previous understanding. The result of the process is
learning that is made up of three elements: (1) knowledge they gain from the
new experience, (2) their prior understanding, and (3) their personal
connection of the new and the old. Because the learner’s previous understanding
is unique and because the intellectual process he or she uses to make the
connections is unique as well, the construction is personally unique to each
individual. Because learning occurs in this way, the primary teaching tasks of
schools and teachers are (1) to provide constructivist-rich ideas and learning
experiences, (2) to stimulate and guide learner constructivist thinking, and
(3) to remember continuously that all members of the community students,
teachers, staff members, administrators, and parents are learning all the time
in their unique ways. Particularly important is the realization that teachers
continuously learn from and about students just as students learn from
teachers.
Powerful Social Studies
The gessential characteristics of
powerful social studies has described by NCSS consist of five principles and
each principle has direct implications for what teachers should know and be
able to do and what dispositions they should possess.The five principles are as
follows:
Social studies
teaching and learning are powerful when they are meaningful. Meaningfulness
is stimulated when:
-
Students learn connected networks of knowledge,
skills, beliefs, and attitudes that they will find useful both in and outside
of school.
-
Instruction emphasizes depth of development of
important ideas within appropriate breadth of topic coverage and focuses on
teaching these important ideas for understanding, appreciation, and life
application.
-
The significance and meaningfulness of the content
is emphasized both in how it is presented to students and how it is developed
through activities.
-
Classroom interaction focuses on sustained
examination of a few important topics rather than superficial coverage of many.
-
Meaningful learning activities and assessment
strategies focus students’ attention on the most important ideas embedded in
what they are learning.
-
The teacher is reflective in planning, implementing,
and assessing instruction; and the institution values reflection as demonstrated
in its practices and policies.
Social studies
teaching and learning are powerful when they are integrative.Integration is
encouraged when:
-
Social
studies subject matter is taught topically across disciplines.
-
The
subject matter cuts across time and space.
-
The
instruction interconnects knowledge, skills, beliefs, values, and attitudes
with effective social/political action.
-
The
teaching makes effective use of technology.
-
Social
studies teaching and learning are connected to other subjects.
Social studies
teaching and learning are powerful when they are values-based. Social studies content invariably involves
the examination and understanding of values one’s own and those of others as
values are expressed in points of view, beliefs, policies, actions, or
inactions. Values-based instruction appropriate to education in a democratic
society committed to safeguarding individual rights and the common good occurs
when:
-
Social
studies teachers guide students to consider the ethical dimensions of topics
and address controversial issues, providing an arena for reflective development
of concern for the common good and application of social values.
-
Students
are made aware of potential social policy implications and taught to think
critically and make value-based decisions about related social issues.
-
Rather
than promulgating personal, sectarian, or political views, teachers make sure
that students: (a) become aware of the values, complexities, and dilemmas
involved in an issue; (b) consider the costs and benefits to various individuals and groups that are
embedded in potential courses of action; and (c) develop well-reasoned
positions consistent with basic democratic social and political values.
Social studies teaching and
learning are powerful when they are challenging. Social studies becomes
challenging when:
-
Students
are expected to strive to accomplish the instructional goals, both as
individuals and group members.
-
Teachers
model seriousness of purpose and a thoughtful approach to inquiry, and use
instructional strategies designed to elicit and support similar qualities from
students.
-
Teachers
show interest in and respect for students’ thinking and demand well-reasoned
arguments rather than opinions voiced without adequate thought or commitment.
-
Teachers
encourage recognition of opposing points of view, respect for well-supported
positions, sensitivity to cultural similarities and differences, and a
commitment to social responsibility.
Social studies teaching and
learning are powerful when the learning is active. Social studies involves
productive active learning when:
-
Teachers
and students engage in reflective thinking and decision-making as events unfold
during instruction.
-
Students
develop new understanding through a process of active construction of
knowledge.
-
Interactive
discourse facilitates the construction of meaning required to develop important
social understanding.
-
Teachers
gradually move from providing considerable guidance by modeling, explaining, or
supplying information that builds student knowledge, to a less directive role
that encourages students to become independent and self-regulated learners.
Teachers emphasize authentic activities that call for real-life applications
using the skills and content of the field.
AUDIENCES
These standards are intended for
the potential use of a number of different audiences who are either responsible
for assuring the competence of social studies teaching professionals or in need
of such assurance as they decide about which teacher preparation institution t
attend or which prospective social studies teachers to employ. Those audiences
include:
1)
Institutions
of higher education and teacher education units (colleges, schools, and
departments) within those institutions that prepare teachers for initial
licensure (orcertification) and recommend for state licensure (or
certification) those who complete their programs successfully;
2)
National
Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) reviewers of (1) teacher
education units and (2) state standards and procedures used to approve
institutional programs;
3)
State
agencies that approve teacher education programs at higher education
institutions;
4)
State
licensure (or certification) offices that grant licenses (or certificates) that
attest to a teacher competence;
5)
Prospective
social studies teachers;Testing organizations and agencies that develop and
administer tests that denote a teacher competence;
6)
School
system employers of teachers who seek evidence of the competence of the
prospective teachers they are considering employing for their schools; and
7)
Students,
parents, and citizens who seek assurance that the social studies teachers in their
schools and communities are knowledgeable and capable.
Institutions of
Higher Education and Their Teacher Education Units (Colleges, Schools,
Divisions, and
Departments) that Educate Teachers
Institutions of higher education and
teacher education units (colleges, schools, and departments) within those
institutions that desire to have their programs for the preparation of social
studies teachers approved as meeting the standards of NCSS are obliged to
provide compelling documentary evidence to NCSS that these standards are met.
This can be done through the NCATE review process for program approval or
through the NCATE State Partnership approval process. More detailed information
can be obtained from NCSS .
NCATE
Reviewers
When an
institution seeks NCATE accreditation of its unit and NCSS national approval of
its social studies teacher education program(s), the evidence it submits for
review is evaluated by a sequence of NCATE and NCSS reviewers. These reviewers
are obligated to determine if the unit and its social studies program(s) meet
these national standards as well as broader NCATE standards. Institutions must
meet both sets of standards for the social studies program(s) to be designated
as “nationally recognized” by both NCSS andNCATE.
Similarly, when
state agencies that have the authority to grant state approval of social
studies teacher education programs seek national approval of their social
studies teacher education standards and procedures, they are obligated to
submit evidence to NCSS that National Standards for Social Studies Teachers
their standards and procedures are aligned with these NCSS standards. The
evidence they submit for review is
evaluated by both NCSS and NCATE reviewers. These reviewers are obligated to
determine if the state teacher education standards and procedures meet these
national standards as well as broader NCATE standards. State standards and
procedures must meet both sets of standards in order for the institutional
social studies program(s) that they approve to be designated as “nationally
recognized” by both NCSS and NCATE.
State Agencies
that Approve Teacher Education Programs
State agencies that approve
social studies teacher education programs may use these standards as the
criteria by which they evaluate the programs they review. If their standards
and approval process have been approved by NCSS and NCATE through the review
process mentioned above, the programs that they approve are also “nationally
recognized” by NCSS and NCATE.
State
Licensure (or Certification) Offices
State officials that grant
licenses (or certification) to social studies teachers that attest to those
teachers’ competence may use these standards as the criteria by which they
evaluate individual applicants’ capabilities.
Prospective
Social Studies Teachers
Individuals preparing to become
competent social studies teachers, including those planning to teach at the
elementary school level, may use these standards as guidance in
(1) choosing the
university or college and teacher preparation program they might attend,
(2) selecting
courses and learning experience within institutions that would serve them well as
teachers
(3) identifying
personal professional characteristics they might develop in order to teach
well.
Testing
Organizations
Those who
develop tests intended to assess teacher social studies knowledge and to
predict teacher performance capabilities associated with social studies may use
these standards as guides for formulating their assessment instruments.
School System
Employers
Employers of
prospective teachers may use these standards as criteria for making decisions
about whom to employ as their social studies teachers.
Students,
Parents, and Citizens
Students, parents, and citizens
may use these standards as criteria for assessing the social studies knowledge
and capabilities of the social studies teachers in their school and communities.
1
STANDARDS
SUBJECT
MATTER STANDARDS
The
subject matter standards itemized below are intended to assure that (1) social
studies teachers possess the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions
associated with the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the
disciplines that make up the social studies and (2) that they are able to
create learning experiences that make these aspects of subject matter
meaningful for learners. They are directed toward the initial licensure of
beginning teachers. The subject matter standards are of three types: thematic
standards, disciplinary standards, and programmatic standards for initial
licensure.
The
thematic standards are based on the NCSS document Expectations of Excellence:
Curriculum Standards for Social Studies (1994), which describes NCSS
expectations of what pre-K-12 learners should know and be able to do. The
thematic standards listed below specify what social studies teachers should
know and be able to do in order to teach the learners assigned to them. They apply
to individuals, teacher preparation programs, and state standards and
procedures that concern licensure (or certification) for endorsement in (1)
social studies as a broad field of endorsement; (2) any of the specific
disciplines that fall within social studies history, geography, civics and
government, economics, psychology, sociology, and anthropology; and (3) other
interdisciplinary licensure areas that are based primarily on social
studies/social science subject matter.
The
disciplinary standards are based on documents that have been compiled in recent
years by various expert groups who have identified what they believe pre-K-12
learners should know and be able to do as a result of instruction in specific
social studies social science discipline-based subjects—history, geography, and
so forth. The disciplinary standards listed below specify what teachers in the
specific licensure areas of history, geography, civics and government,
economics, and psychology should know and be able to do to teach appropriately.
Both
the thematic and the disciplinary standards are expected to be used directly in
four ways: (1) to assess the knowledge and competence of individuals seeking
licensure (or certification) to teach social studies or any of the disciplines
within social studies, (2) to assess the quality of teacher education programs
that prepare these individuals for initial licensure (or certification), (3) to
determine the appropriateness of state standards and procedures that are used
to evaluate teacher preparation programs that would be designated “nationally
recognized” by NCSS, and (4) to guide those establishing criteria and
procedures to be used for advanced certification of social studies teachers,
such as the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS).Although
both sets of standards identify areas in which knowledge and competence are
expected to be demonstrated, the standards do not specify minimums to be met.
This is intentional and in keeping with the role of these standards and their use
as described above in the general introduction to this document. In essence,
these standards stipulate what areas of knowledge and competence should be
required of social studies teachers and the programs that prepare them.
Entities such as the institutions that prepare teachers, state licensure
offices, the Interstate New Teacher Assistance and Support Consortium (INTASC),
NCATE, NCSS reviewers and the NBPTS are expected to determine how much
knowledge and competence is to be expected for each of the uses of the
standards. It is realistic to assume that particularly well met standards will
compensate in some degree for standards that are less well met.
The
programmatic standards for initial licensure are of a different order from the
thematic and disciplinary standards. They focus directly on teacher preparation
programs for initial licensure rather than on the individuals seeking the
licenses. They are intended to assure that teacher preparation programs provide
the necessary experiences and resources to enable their teacher candidates to
become knowledgeable and competent. They are expected to be used for NCSS
approval of (1) institutional programs and (2) state standards and procedures
that are used to evaluate teacher preparation programs that seek to be
designated as “nationally recognized” by NCSS.
A. THEMATIC
STANDARDS
These ten
thematic standards apply to all individuals seeking initial licensure (or
certification) in social studies, (1) as a broad field; (2) in any of the
specific disciplines that fall within social studies—history, geography, civics
and government, economics, psychology, sociology, and anthropology; and (3) in
other interdisciplinary licensure areas that are based primarily on social
studies/social science subject matter. They also apply to the teacher
preparation programs that prepare these individuals for these respective
licenses (certificates). It is recognized however, that depths of knowledge and
degrees of competence will, of necessity, vary across the ten standards from individual
to individual and program to program. Although no standard should be ignored,
neglected, or completely unmet, how well or thoroughly each should be met
should be judged during the processes of institutional program development and
state licensing, and during reviews by NCSS program reviewers, INTASC, NCATE,
and entities that award advanced certification, such as NBPTS.
-
help learners to describe and examine belief
systems basic to specific traditions and laws in contemporary and historical
societies;
-
challenge
learners to evaluate the role of institutions in furthering both continuity and
change;
-
guide
learner analysis of the extent to which groups and institutions meet individual
needs and promote the common good in contemporary and historical settings;
-
assist
learners as they explain and apply ideas and modes of inquiry drawn from the
behavioral sciences in the examination of persistent social issues and problems.
-
School Applications
In focusing on
the theme Individuals, Groups, and Institutions, teachers at various school
levels should build upon learnersf knowledge, experience, and developmental
capabilities.Teachers of the early grades should provide learners with
opportunities to examine various institutions that affect their lives and influence
their thinking. At this level, teachers can assist learners in recognizing the
tensions that occur when the goals, values, and principles of two or more institutions
or groups conflict. for example, when the school board prohibits candy machines
in schools versus a class project to install a candy machine to help raise
money for the local hospital.
They can also
help learners explore ways in which institutions such as churches or health
care networks are created to respond to changing individual and group needs.
Teachers
of the middle grades can provide learners with varied experiences through which
they can examine the ways in which institutions address human needs, change
over time, promote social conformity, and influence cultures. At this level,
teachers can encourage learners to use this understanding to suggest how groups
and institutions may be used to promote the common good but sometimes fail to
do so.
High
school teachers can help learners understand the paradigms and traditions that
undergird social and political institutions. At this level, teachers can
provide opportunities for learners to examine, use, and add to the body of
knowledge associated with the behavioral sciences and social theory as it
relates to the ways people and groups organize themselves around common needs,
beliefs, and interests.
POWER, AUTHORITY, AND GOVERNANCE
Social studies
teachers should possess the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions to
organize
and provide
instruction at the appropriate school level for the study of Power, Authority,
and
Governance.
Learner Expectations
Understanding
the historical development of structures of power, authority, and governance
and their evolving functions in contemporary American society, as well as in
other parts of the world, is essential for the development of civic competence.
In exploring this theme, learners confront such questions as: What is power?
What is legitimate authority? How are governments created, structured,
maintained, and changed? How can we keep government responsive to its citizens
needs and interests?
How can
individual rights be protected within the context of majority rule? By
examining the characteristics of various governance systems, learners develop
an understanding of how groups and nations attempt to resolve conflicts and
seek to establish order and security. Through study of dynamic relationships
among individual rights and responsibilities, the needs of social groups, and
concepts of a just society, learners become more effective problem solvers and
decision-makers when addressing persistent social problems encountered in
public life.
Teacher Expectations
Teachers of
social studies at all school levels should provide developmentally appropriate experiences
as they guide learners in the study of power, authority, and governance.They
should enable learners to examine the rights and responsibilities of the
individual in relation to their families, their social groups, their community,
and their nation; National Standards for Social Studies Teachers
Thematic
Standards
. help students
to understand the purpose of government and how its powers are
acquired, used,
and justified;
. provide
opportunities for learners to examine issues involving the rights, roles,
and status of individuals
in relation to the general welfare;
. enable
learners to describe the ways nations and organizations respond to forces
of unity and
diversity affecting order and security;
. have learners
explain conditions, actions, and motivations that contribute to
conflict and
cooperation within and among nations;
. help learners
to analyze and explain governmental mechanisms to meet the needs
and wants of
citizens, regulate territory, manage conflict, and establish order and
security;
. have learners
identify and describe the basic features of the American political
system, and
identify representative leaders from various levels and branches of
government;
. challenge
learners to apply concepts such as power, role, status, justice,
democratic
values, and influence to the examination of persistent issues and
social problems;
. guide learners
to explain and evaluate how governments attempt to achieve their
stated ideals at
home and abroad.
School
Applications
In focusing on
the theme Power, Authority, and Governance, teachers at various
school levels
should build upon learnersf knowledge, experience, and developmental
capabilities.
¡ Teachers of
the early grades can assist learners in exploring their natural and
developing sense
of fairness and order as they experience relationships with
others. Learners
should develop an increasingly comprehensive awareness of
rights and
responsibilities. For example, learners can examine the rules, types of
authority, and
governmental structures of their schools and communities. They
can be asked to
explore why certain rules exist and what might happen if they
did not; why
principals, teachers, and other adults at school have particular types
of authority;
and how rules are made at school and who enforces them. They can
investigate
rights and responsibilities as they apply to themselves as participants
in their schools
and communities.
¡ Teachers of
the middle grades can help learners apply these rights and
responsibilities
in specific contexts, including their studies of American history.
During these
years, learners can play an important role in developing rules
for their own
classrooms. They can also apply these rights and responsibilities
in increasingly
complex situations with emphasis upon new applications. For
example,
learners can be asked to develop hypothetical communities in which
certain students
play different power and authority roles and they can engage
in enforcing
rules when infractions are constructed through simulation. Finally,
they can also
begin or expand on their studies of power and authority in their
local
communities.
¡ High school
teachers can help learners develop their abilities in the use of
abstract
principles. At this level, learners can study various systems that have
been developed
over the centuries to allocate and employ power and authority in
National
Standards for Social Studies Teachers 29
Thematic
Standards
the governance
process. For example, they can compare structures and authority
roles in
monarchies, dictatorships, oligarchies, and democracies. They can also
study local and
national power situations and respond to them intellectually and
in action as
developing citizens who are reaching the age to vote.
PRODUCTION,
DISTRIBUTION, AND CONSUMPTION
Social studies
teachers should possess the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions to
organize
and provide
instruction at the appropriate school level for the study of how people
organize for the
Production,
Distribution, and Consumption of goods and services.
Learner
Expectations
People wants
often exceed the limited resources available to them, and as a result, they
have invented a variety of ways to answer four fundamental questions: What is
to be produced? How is production to be organized? How are goods and services
to be distributed? How shall factors of production (land, labor, capital, and
management)be allocated? Learners need to understand these universal questions
and how they are being addressed by various groups. They also need to understand
that unequal distribution of resources necessitates systems of exchange,
including trade, to improve the well-being of individual groups, and the
economy; that the role of government in economic policy-making varies over time
and from place to place; that increasingl economic decisions are global in
scope and require systematic study of an interdependent world economy; and that
technology plays a significant role in economic decisionmaking.
Teacher
Expectations
Teachers of
social studies at all school levels should provide developmentally appropriate experiences
as they guide learners in the study of how people organize for the production, distribution,
and consumption of goods and services. They should enable learners to explain
how the scarcity of productive resources (human, capital, technological, and
natural) requires the development of economic systems to make decisions about
how goods and services are to be produced anddistributed;
-
Help
learners analyze the role that supply and demand, prices, incentives, and profits
play in determining what is produced and distributed in a competitive market
system;
-
Help
learners compare the costs and benefits to society of allocating goods and services
through private and public means;
-
Assist
learners in understanding the relationships among the various economi institutions
that comprise economic systems such as households, businesses, banks,
government agencies, labor unions, and corporations;
-
guide
learner analysis of the role of specialization and exchange in economic processes;
provide opportunities for learners to assess how values and beliefs influence private
and public economic decisions in different societies;
-
have learners compare basic economic systems
according to how they deal with demand, supply, prices, the role of government,
banks, labor and labor unions, savings and investments, and capital;
-
challenge
learners to apply economic concepts and reasoning when evaluating historical
and contemporary social developments and issues; . enable learners to
distinguish between domestic and global economic systems, and explain how the
two interact;
-
guide
learners in the application of economic concepts and principles in the analysis
of public issues such as the allocation of health care or the consumption of
energy, and in devising economic plans for accomplishing socially desirable outcomes
related to such issues;
-
help learners critically examine the values
and assumptions underlying the theories and models of economics;
-
help
learners to distinguish between economics as a field of inquiry and the economy.
School
Applications
In
focusing on the theme Production, Distribution, and Consumption, teachers at
various school levels should build upon learners knowledge, experience, and
developmental capabilities. Teachers of the early grades can help learners
identify human wants common to all societies as well as unique to individuals.
They can introduce learners to basic economic concepts and have them explore
economic decisions as they compare their personal economic decisions with those
of others and consider the consequences of those decisions on themselves, as
well as on groups, communities, the nation, and the world.
Teachers
of the middle grades can help learners expand their knowledge of economic
concepts and principles, and use economic reasoning processes in addressing
issues related to the four fundamental economic questions. They can expose
their students to dilemmas that require difficult economic choices, help them
analyze the implications and underlying values of those choices, and help them
make reasoned economic decisions.
High
school teachers can help learners develop economic concepts and processes through
systematic study of a range of economic and socio-political systems, with particular
emphasis on the examination of domestic and global economic policy options
related to matters such as health care, resource use, employment, and trade.
They can challenge learners to apply their economic knowledge to societal conditions
as they analyze economic issues of past and present, clarify their own economic
values, and refine their decision-making capabilities. They can also assist
learners in clarifying and examining the explicit assumptions underlying both
economic analyses by experts in the field, and the prevailing theories/models
of economics.
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY
Social studies
teachers should possess the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions to
organize and provide instruction at the appropriate school level for the study
of science, technology, and society.
Learner Expectations
Science is an
enterprise that focuses on inquiry about natural phenomena; technology is the
designing of things and processes to achieve practical purposes. Learners need Thematic
Standards to realize that both science and technology have had a profound
effect in shaping human experience and the world around us. Tracing the impact
of science and technology historically in such areas of human endeavor as
agriculture, manufacturing, the production and distribution of goods and
services, the use of energy, communication, transportation, information
processing, medicine and health care, and warfare enables learners to
understand how science and technology have influenced and been influenced by
individuals, societies, and cultures.
By
examining questions and issues raised historically and contemporaneously resulting
from scientific inquiry and technological applications, learners can be better prepared
to make informed decisions as citizens about individual choices and policy alternatives
that face society. Are new technologies always better than old ones? What can
we learn from the past about how the enterprises of science and technology have
resulted in social changes, some of which are unanticipated? How can we cope
with the ever-increasing pace of change? How can we manage scientific and
technological activities so that the greatest number of people benefit from
them and the rights and interests of the minority are not forfeited? How can we
preserve our fundamental values and beliefs in the midst of scientific inquiry
and technological change?
Teacher Expectations
Teachers of
social studies at all school levels should provide developmentally appropriate experiences
as they guide learners in the study of science and technology. They should enable
learners to identify, describe, and examine both current and historica examples
of the interaction and interdependence of science, technology, and society in a
variety of cultural settings;
-
Provide
opportunities for learners to make judgments about how science and technology
have transformed the physical world and human society and our understanding of
time, space, place, and human-environment interactions;
-
Have learners analyze the way in which science
and technology influence core societal values, beliefs, and attitudes and how
societal attitudes influence scientific and technological endeavors;
-
Prompt
learners to evaluate various policies proposed to deal with social changes resulting
from new technologies;
-
help
learners to identify and interpret various perspectives about human societies
and the physical world using scientific knowledge, technologies, and an understanding
of ethical standards of this and other cultures;
-
encourage
learners to formulate strategies and develop policy proposals pertaining to
science/technology-society issues.
School Applications
In focusing on
the theme Science, Technology, and Society, teachers at various school levels
should build upon learnersknowledge, experience, and developmental
capabilities.Teachers of the early grades can help learners use their own
experiences with science and technology to develop an understanding of the role
that science and technology play in their lives and the lives of others. They
can have them consider how inventions have altered the course of history and
how society
has employed
technologies to modify the physical environment. They can also provide
opportunities for learners to consider instances in which changes in values,
beliefs, and attitudes have resulted from the communication and acceptance of
scientific and technological knowledge. Teachers of young learners can also
challenge them to consider ways to understand how science and technology may be
used to protect the physical environment, and promote the
common good.
-
Teachers
of the middle grades can provide opportunities for learners to extend their
understanding of the roles that science and technology play in their own lives
and in the lives of others. They can help learners identify examples of how
science and technology have transformed individualsf lives and social
institutions and how they have changed people perceptions of and beliefs about
the natural and social world. They can ask learners to weigh the need for laws
and policies to govern scientific activities and technological applications.
-
High
school teachers can provide opportunities for learners to deepen their
understanding of the roles that science and technology have played historically
and contemporaneously in transforming the physical world and human society and
how we need to manage change rather than be controlled by it. They can provide
opportunities for learners to confront issues involving science and technology
and in so doing, guide learners as they analyze the reciprocal influence that scientific
inquiry and technology and core social values and beliefs have upon one
another. They can ask learners to evaluate policies and propose strategies for
influencing public discussion of science and technology issues or ways of
dealing with social changes resulting from new technologies. They can also
challenge them to seek and consider reasonable and ethical alternatives to
issues that arise when scientific theories, discoveries, or findings and social
norms or religious beliefs come into conflict.
In
addition to the document by National Council for the Social Studies,
Expectations of Excellence: Curriculum Standards for Social Studies
(Washington, D.C.: NCSS, 1994), the following parallel documents were consulted
as this standard was developed: National Research Council, National Science
Standards (Washington D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996); and American
Association for the Advancement of Science, Benchmarks for Science Literacy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
GLOBAL
CONNECTIONS
Social studies
teachers should possess the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions to
provide instruction at the appropriate school level for the study of Global
Connections and Interdependence.
Learner Expectations
The realities of
global interdependence require that learners understand the increasingly
important and diverse global connections among the cultures and societies of
the world. Analysis of tensions between national interests and global
priorities may contribute to the development of possible solutions to
persistent and emerging global issues in many fields: health care, economic
development, environmental quality, and universal human rights. Analyzing
patterns and relationships within and among cultures of the world, such as
economic competition and interdependence, age-old ethnic enmities, political
and military alliances, and others, helps learners examine policy alternatives
that have both national and global implications.
Teacher Expectations
Teachers of
social studies at all school levels should provide developmentally appropriate
experiences as they guide learners in the study of global connections and
interdependence. They should enable
learners to explain how interactions among language, art, music, belief
systems, and other cultural elements can facilitate global understanding or
cause misunderstanding
-
help
learners to explain conditions and motivations that contribute to conflict, cooperation,
and interdependence among groups, societies, and nations;
-
provide
opportunities for learners to analyze and evaluate the effects of changing technologies
on the global community;
-
challenge
learners to analyze the causes, consequences, and possible solutions to
persistent, contemporary, and emerging global issues, such as health care, security,
resource allocation, economic development, and environmental quality;
-
guide
learner analysis of the relationships and tensions between national sovereignty
and global interests in such matters as territorial disputes, economic development,
nuclear and other weapons deployment, use of natural resources, and human
rights concerns;
-
have
learners analyze or formulate policy statements that demonstrate an
understanding of concerns, standards, issues, and conflicts related to
universal human rights;
-
help
learners to describe and evaluate the role of international and multinational organizations
in the global arena;
-
have learners illustrate how individual
behaviors and decisions connect with global systems.
School Applications
In focusing on
the theme Global Connections, teachers at various school levels should
build upon
learners knowledge, experience, and developmental capabilities. Teachers of the
early grades can build on learnersf first-hand experiences and those presented
to them through the media to help them to become aware of and to understand how
they are affected by events on a global scale. Within this context, teachers
can provide experiences through which learners examine and explore global
connections, issues, and concerns. For example, learners might explore ways
language or beliefs may facilitate understanding or lead to misunderstanding,
or, when given examples of conflict, cooperation, or interdependence among
groups, think of reasons that lead to such behavior.
Teachers
of the middle grades can encourage learners to initiate analyses of the interactions
among states and nations and their cultural complexities as they respond to
global events and changes. They might encourage learners to map the locations
where various products they own were produced and to explore the causes,
consequences, and possible solutions to persistent, contemporary, and emerging
global issues or have learners describe and explain various specific instances
of tensions between national sovereignty and global interests. High school
teachers can assist learners in thinking systematically about personal,
national, and global decisions, interactions, and consequences, including
addressing critical issues such as peace, human rights, trade, and global
ecology. They might ask learners to formulate policy statements that
demonstrate an understanding of concerns, standards, issues, and conflicts
related to universal human rights, or to illustrate how individual behaviors
and decisions connect with global systems.
CIVIC IDEALS AND PRACTICES
Social studies
teachers should possess the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions to
organize and provide instruction at the appropriate school level for the study
of Civic Ideals and Practices.
Learner
Expectations The study of civic ideals and practices, the central purpose of
social studies, prepares learners for full participation in society. Examining
civic ideals and practices across time and in diverse societies prepares
learners to close the gap between present practices and the ideals upon which
our democratic republic is based. Learners confront such questions as: What is
civic participation and how can I be involved? How has the meaning of
citizenship evolved? What should be the balance between rights and responsibilities?
What is the role of the citizen in the community, in the nation, and in the
world community? How can I make a positive difference?
Teacher Expectations
Teachers of
social studies at all school levels should provide developmentally appropriate
experiences as
they guide learners in the study of civic ideals and practices. They should
-
assist
learners in understanding the origins and continuing influence of key ideals of
the democratic republican form of government, such as individual human dignity,
liberty, justice, equality, and the rule of law;
-
guide
learner efforts to identify, analyze, interpret, and evaluate sources and examples
of citizens rights and responsibilities;
-
facilitate
learner efforts to locate, access, analyze, organize, synthesize, evaluate, and
apply information about selected public issues.identifying, describing, and evaluating
multiple points of view and taking reasoned positions on such issues;
-
provide
opportunities for learners to practice forms of civic discussion and participation
consistent with the ideals of citizens in a democratic republic;
-
help learners to analyze and evaluate the
influence of various forms of citizen action on public policy;
-
prepare
learners to analyze a variety of public policies and issues from the perspective
of formal and informal political actors;
-
guide
learners as they evaluate the effectiveness of public opinion in influencing and
shaping public policy development and decision-making;
-
encourage
learner efforts to evaluate the degree to which public policies and citizen
behaviors reflect or foster the stated ideals of a democratic republican form
of government;
-
support
learner efforts to construct policy statements and action plans to achieve goals
related to issues of public concern;
-
create
opportunities for learner participation in activities to strengthen the common
good,based upon careful evaluation of possible options for citizen action.
School Applications
In
focusing on the theme Civic Ideals and Practices, teachers at various school
levels should build upon learners knowledge, experience, and developmental
capabilities.
Teachers
of the early grades can introduce learners to civic ideals and practices through
activities such as involving them in the establishment of classroom rules and
expectations and determining how to balance the needs of individuals and the
group. In addition, teachers can provide learners the opportunity to view citizenship
in other times and places through stories and drama; and in their local community
by following current news stories.
Teachers
of the middle grades can help learners expand their ability to analyze and
evaluate the relationships between ideals and practice. In addition, they can
provide opportunities for learners to envision taking civic roles in their communities.
For example, they can monitor news stories of local and national political
issues and conflicts, discuss what is happening, explore why it is happening,
and compare ideas about what can be, is being, and should be done.
High
school teachers can help learners recognize the rights and responsibilities of
citizens in identifying societal needs, setting directions for public policies,
and working to support both individual rights and the common good. In addition,
they can provide opportunities for learners to experience participation in
community service and political activities and develop skill in using the democratic
process to influence public policy. Most important, learners should be guided
through the processes of responsible citizenship participation in all its dimensions
as they face political issues as citizens approaching voting age.
B. DISCIPLINARY
STANDARDS
These five
disciplinary standards apply respectively to individuals seeking initial
licensure (or certification) in each of the social studies discipline areas of
history, geography, civics and government, economics, and psychology as well as
to the teacher preparation programs that prepare them for these licenses
(certificates). Although these standards should be considered the primary standards
for the subject matter component of each discipline-based license, the
individuals seeking these licenses and their teacher preparation programs are
also expected to meet the ten thematic standards described above. It is
recognized, however, that, because of the discipline focus of these licenses,
the depth of knowledge and degrees of competence across the ten thematic
standards will vary and will likely be less substantial than for those seeking
endorsement in social studies as a broad field.
HISTORY
Teachers who are
licensed to teach history should possess the knowledge, capabilities, and
dispositions to organize and provide instruction at the appropriate school
level for the study of history.
Learner
Expectations
The study of
history and how historians study the past allows learners to understand their
place in time and location. The knowledge base of historical content drawn from
United States and world history provides the basis from which learners develop historical
understanding and competence in ways of historical thinking. Historical thinking
skills enable learners to evaluate evidence, develop comparative and causal analyses,
interpret the historical record, and construct sound historical arguments and perspectives
on which informed decisions in contemporary life can be based. Historical understandings
define what learners should know about the history of their nation and of the
world. These understandings are drawn from the record of human aspirations, strivings,
accomplishments, and failures in at least five spheres of human activity: the social,
political, scientific/technological, economic, and cultural
(philosophical/religious/ aesthetic). They also provide learners the historical
perspectives necessary to analyze contemporary issues and problems confronting
citizens today. Teachers of history at all school levels should provide
developmentally appropriate experiences as they guide learners in their study.
They should
. assist
learners in utilizing chronological thinking so that they can distinguish between
past, present, and future time; can place historical narratives in the proper
chronological framework; can interpret data presented in time lines; and can
compare alternative models for periodization;
. enable
learners to develop historical comprehension in order that they might reconstruct
the literal meaning of a historical passage, identify the central question(s)
addressed in historical narrative, draw upon data in historical maps, charts,
and other graphic organizers; and draw upon visual, literary, or musical
sources;
. guide learners
in practicing skills of historical analysis and interpretation, such as compare
and contrast, differentiate between historical facts and interpretations, consider
multiple perspectives, analyze cause and effect relationships, compare competing
historical narratives, recognize the tentative nature of historical interpretations,
and hypothesize the influence of the past;
. help learners
understand how historians study history; assist learners in developing
historical research capabilities that enable them to formulate historical
questions, obtain historical data, question historical data, identify the gaps
in available records, place records in context, and construct sound historical
interpretations; help learners to identify issues and problems in the past,
recognize factors contributing to such problems, identify and analyze
alternative courses of action, formulate a position or course of action, and
evaluate the implementation of that decision; assist learners in acquiring
knowledge of historical content in United States history in order to ask large
and searching questions that compare patterns of continuity and change in the
history and values of the many peoples who have contributed to the development
of the continent of North America; guide learners in acquiring knowledge of the
history and values of diverse civilizations throughout the world, including
those of the West, and in comparing patterns of continuity and change in
different parts of the world; enable learners to develop historical understanding
through the avenues of social, political, economic, and cultural history and
the history of science and technology. In focusing on the discipline of
history, teachers at various school levels should build
upon learners
knowledge, experience, and developmental capabilities.
Teachers
of the early grades can provide learners with experiences that give them a
sense of their own roots and of their connections with others and with the
past. Learners can have the opportunity to begin to develop the skills of historical
thinking that will enable them to differentiate past, present, and future time,
and to raise questions and seek answers from historical stories and records from
the past. Their historical understandings can draw from at least five spheres of
human activity: social, political, scientific/technological, economic, and
cultural as they study the history of their families, communities, states,
region, nation, and of other nations or topics with world-wide implications.
Teachers
of the middle grades can provide learners with a more formal study of history.
Learners can have the opportunity to construct timelines; to group events by
broadly defined eras; to study and interpret historical documents, taking into
account the context of the historical period from which the document is drawn;
to formulate historical questions; and to identify the values and moral convictions
of individuals who hold differing views on a dispute.
High
school teachers can engage learners in a sophisticated analysis and reconstruction
of the past. Learners can be encouraged to draw upon various forms of data in
order to elaborate upon information provided by historical narratives; to
distinguish between accepted historical facts and interpretations; to consider
multiple perspectives in interpreting the past; to make choices regarding historical
sources, drawing from bibliographical studies; and to utilize historical methodologies
in analyzing and defending historical arguments. For further information, see
the following parallel documents that were consulted as this standard was
developed: the NCSS theme, Time, Continuity, and Change, in Expectations of
Excellence: Curriculum Standards for Social Studies (Washington, D.C.NCSS,
1994); and the National Standards for History: Basic Edition (Los Angeles:
National Center for History in the Schools, University of California, Los
Angeles, 1994).
GEOGRAPHY
Teachers who are
licensed to teach geography at all school levels should possess the knowledge,
capabilities,
and dispositions to organize and provide instruction at the appropriate school
level for
the study of
geography.
Learner
Expectations
The study of
geography allows learners to develop an understanding of the spatial contexts
of people, places, and environments. It provides knowledge of Earth physical and
human systems and the interdependency of living things and physical
environments. Studying geography stimulates curiosity about the world and the
world diverse inhabitants and places, as well as about local, regional, and
global issues. Geography allows learners to understand and make decisions about
issues at the global as well as the local level.
Teacher
Expectations
Teachers of
geography at all school levels should provide developmentally appropriate
experiences as
they guide learners in their study. They should
-
guide
learners in the use of maps and other geographic representations, tools, and
technologies to acquire, process, and report information from a spatial perspective;
-
enable learners to use mental maps to organize
information about people, places, and environments in a spatial context;
-
assist
learners to analyze the spatial information about people, places, and environments
on Earth surface;
-
help
learners to understand the physical and human characteristics of places;
-
assist
learners in developing the concept of regions as a means to interpret Earth complexity;
-
enable learners to understand how culture and
experience influence people perceptions of places and regions;
-
provide
learners opportunities to understand and analyze the physical processes that
shape Earth surface;
-
challenge
learners to consider the characteristics and spatial distribution of ecosystems
on Earth surface;
-
guide learners in exploring the
characteristics, distribution, and migration of human populations on Earth surface;
-
help learners to understand and analyze the
characteristics, distribution, and complexity of Earth cultural mosaics;
-
have
learners explore the patterns and networks of economic interdependence on Earth
surface;
-
enable
learners to describe the processes, patterns, and functions of human settlement;
-
challenge
learners to examine how the forces of cooperation and conflict among people
influence the division and control of Earth surface;
-
help
learners see how human actions modify the physical environment;
-
enable
learners to analyze how physical systems affect human systems;
-
challenge
learners to examine the changes that occur in the meaning, use, distribution,
and importance of resources;
-
help
learners to apply geography to interpret the past and present and to plan for
the future
-
enhance
learners abilities to ask questions and to acquire, organize, and analyze geographic
information so they can answer geographic questions as they engage in the study
of substantive geographic content.
School
Applications
In focusing on
the discipline of geography, teachers at various school levels should
build upon
learners knowledge, experience, and developmental capabilities.Teachers of the
early grades can provide learners with experiences that give them an
understanding of the characteristics and purposes of geographic representations,
such as maps, globes, and satellite-produced images. Learners can be helped to
understand their local community and nearby communities. They can be taught the
location of major physical and human features in the United States and on Earth
and how these physical and human processes together shape places and ways of
living. They can be given opportunities to understand how people depend upon
and modify the physical environment, and how the physical environment can both
accommodate and be endangered by human activities. They can be helped to understand
how places, and people perceptions of places, change over time. Learners in the
early grades can be introduced to the spatial dimensions of social and
environmental problems.
Teachers
in the middle grades can provide learners with experiences in making and using
maps, globes, charts, models, and data bases to analyze spatial distributions
and properties. Learners can begin to develop skills to analyze the physical
and human characteristics of places and how different human groups alter places
in distinct ways. This can include developing an ability to identify and
understand how technology shapes the physical and human characteristics of
places. Middle grade learners can begin to develop an understanding of how
ecosystems work and how physical processes and human activities influence
change in ecosystems. They can study spatial variations in population
distribution and migration, as well as in the effects of migration on the
characteristics of places. They can be introduced to the processes of cultural diffusion
and urbanization and to the fundamental role of energy resources in society.
Middle level learners can be helped to apply a geographic point of view to
solve social and environmental problems. High school teachers can enable
learners to use geographic representations and tools to analyze, explain, and
solve geographic problems. They can provide learners with experiences in
applying concepts and models of spatial organization to make decisions. They
can guide them in developing an understanding of how relationships between
humans and the physical environment lead to the
formation of
places and to a sense of personal and community identity. The can also guide
learners in the understanding of how multiple criteria are used to define a
region and to analyze geographic issues. They can provide experiences that lead
to an understanding of the interactions of Earth physical systems and the
spatial consequences of physical processes across Earth surface. They can help
learners understand the spatial characteristics of cultural convergence and divergence,
and facilitate an understanding of the classification, characteristics, and
spatial distribution of economic systems and the increasing economic interdependence
of the world economies. They can help learners see how differing points of view
and self-interest play roles in conflict over territory and resources. They can
help high school students to learn how to use geographic knowledge, skills, and
perspectives to analyze problems and make decisions. For further information,
see the parallel documents that were consulted as this standard was developed:
the NCSS theme People, Places, and Environments in Expectations of Excellence:
Curriculum Standards for Social Studies (Washington, D.C.: NCSS, 1994);
CIVICS AND
GOVERNMENT
Teachers
who are licensed to teach civics and/or government at all school levels should
possess the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions to organize and provide
instruction at the appropriate school level for the study of civics and
government. Learner Expectations The goal of education in civics and government
is informed, responsible participation in political life by competent citizens
committed to the fundamental values and principles of American constitutional
democracy. This effective and responsible participation requires the
acquisition of a body of knowledge and of intellectual and participatory skills.
Effective and responsible participation also is furthered by the development of
certain dispositions or traits of character that enhance the individual
capacity to participate in the political process and contribute to the healthy
functioning of the political system and improvement of society. The study of
civics and government allows learners to find answers to the following questions:
What is civic life? What is politics? What is government? What are the foundations
of the American political system? What are the basic values and principles of American
democracy? How does the government of the United States, established by the Constitution,
embody the purposes, values, and principles of American democracy? What is the
relationship of the United States to other nations and to world affairs? What
are the roles of the citizen in American democracy?
Teacher
Expectations
Teachers of
civics and government at all school levels should provide developmentally
appropriate
experiences as they guide learners in their study. They should
. assist
learners in developing an understanding of civic life, politics, and
government, so
that the learners can explore the origins of governmental
authority,
recognize the need for government; identify the crucial functions of
government,
including laws and rules; evaluate rules and laws; differentiate
between limited
and unlimited government; and appreciate the importance of
limitations on
government power;
. guide learners
as they explore American democracy, including the American
idea of
constitutional government, the impact of the distinctive characteristics
of American
society on our government, the nature of the American political
culture, and the
values and principles that are basic to American life and
government;
. help learners
understand how the government of the United States operates
under the
constitution and the purposes, values, and principles of American
democracy,
including the ideas of distributed, shared, and limited powers of
government; how
the national, state, and local governments are organized; and
the place of law
in the system;
. enable
learners to understand the relationship of the United States to other
nations and to
world affairs;
. assist
learners in developing an understanding of citizenship, its rights and
responsibilities,
and in developing their abilities and dispositions to participate effectively
in civic life. Insure that learners are made aware of the full range of
opportunities to participate as citizens in the American democracy and of their
responsibilities for doing so. In focusing on civics and government, teachers
at various school levels should build upon learners knowledge, experience, and
developmental capabilities.Teachers of the early grades can provide learners
with experiences that give them a sense of their relationship to others and the
need for rules for resolving conflicts and disagreements. They can introduce
learners to government through the use of analogies with the governance of the
family and the school.
Teachers
of the middle grades can provide learners with a sense of the difference between
the pursuit of private interest and promotion of the common good through the
use of role play, simulation, analogies, or dramatic portrayal. Through the use
of selective biography they can demonstrate the ideal of government service for
the public good. They can introduce the idea of a constitution by analogy to
the rules of a game (baseball, for example) and contrast that with the analogy
of laws as limitations that define fair play in the game. They can introduce
the idea of alternative constitutional forms by way of analogy with the
differences between the rules of baseball and rules of football.
High
school teachers can provide learners with a sense of the origins of the American
political system through historical vignettes of the granting of the Magna
Carta and the evolution of English common law. For example, they can provide
learners with a contextualized sense of the Declaration of Independence, the
Constitution of 1787, the Bill of Rights, and other foundational documents through
narrative accounts of the historical setting within which these documents were
written and adopted. They can provide learners with a temporally situated understanding
of American values through an exploration of the factors that shaped American
society such as religious freedom and diversity; extensive immigration; a market
economy; relative social equality; and universal public. For further
information, see the parallel documents that were consulted as this standard was
developed: the NCSS themes Power, Authority, and Governance and Civic Ideals
and Practices in Expectations of Excellence: Curriculum Standards for Social Studies
(Washington, D.C.: NCSS, 1994); National Standards for Civics and Government (Calabasas,
CA: Center for Civic Education, 1994).
ECONOMICS
Teachers who are
licensed to teach economics at all school levels should possess the knowledge,
capabilities, and dispositions to organize and provide instruction at the
appropriate school level for the study of economics.
Learner
Expectations
The study of
economics provides learners with basic information about how people attempt to
satisfy their wants and helps them employ logical reasoning in thinking about
economic issues. It enables them to understand the economic issues that affect them
every day, the roles they play as consumers and producers, and the costs and benefits
associated with their personal decisions as well as governmental practice. It enables
them to understand the universal questions: What will be produced? How will
production be organized? How will goods and services be distributed? How will factors
of production (land, labor, capital, and management) be allocated? and it helps
them understand how these questions have been answered by various groups.
Teacher
Expectations
Teachers of
economics at all school levels should provide developmentally appropriate experiences
as they guide learners in their study. They should assist learners in acquiring
an understanding of the following principles;
-
Productive
resources are limited. Therefore, people cannot have all the goods and services
that they want; as a result, they must choose some things and give up others.
-
Effective decision making requires comparing
the additional costs of alternatives with the additional benefits. Most choices
involve doing a little more or a little less of something; few choices are all
or nothing decisions.
-
Different methods can be used to allocate
goods and services. People, acting individually or collectively through
government, must choose which methods to use to allocate different kinds of
goods and services.
-
People respond predictably to positive and
negative incentives.
-
Voluntary
exchange occurs only when all parties expect to gain. This is true for trade
among individuals or organizations within a nation, or among individuals or
organizations in different nations.
-
When
individuals, regions, and nations specialize in what they can produce at the
lowest cost and then trade with others, both production and consumption increase.
Markets exist when buyers and sellers interact.
This
interaction determines market prices and thereby allocates scarce goods and
services. Prices send signals and provide incentives to buyers and sellers.
When supply and demand change, market prices adjust, affecting incentives. Competition
among sellers lowers costs and prices, encouraging producers to produce more of
what consumers are willing and able to buy. Competition among buyers increases
prices and allocates goods and services to those people who are willing and
able to pay the most for them.Institutions evolve in market economies to help
individuals and groups accomplish their goals. Banks, labor unions, corporations,
legal systems, and notfor profit organizations are examples of important
institutions. Money makes it easier to trade, borrow, save, invest, and compare
the value of goods and services. Interest rates, adjusted for inflation, rise
and fall to balance the amount saved with the amount borrowed, thus affecting
the allocation of scarce resources between present and future users. Income for
most people is determined by the market value of the productive resources they
sell. What workers earn depends, primarily, on the market value of what they
produce and how productive they are. Entrepreneurs are people who take the
risks of organizing productive resources to make goods and services. Profit is
an important incentive that leads entrepreneurs to accept the risks of business
failure. Investment in factories, machinery, new technology, and in the health,
education, and training of people can raise future standards of living. There
is an economic role for government to play in a market economy whenever the
benefits of a government policy outweigh its costs. Governments often provide
for national defense, address environmental concerns, define and protect
property rights, and attempt to make markets more competitive. Most government
policies also redistribute income. Costs of government policies sometimes
exceed benefits. This may occur because of incentives facing voters, government
officials, and government employees; because of actions by special interest
groups that can impose costs on the general public; or because social goals
other than economic efficiency are being pursued. Cost and benefit analysis is
complex and involves placing value on both tangible and intangible factors when
making policy decisions. A nation
overall levels of income, employment, and prices are determined the interaction
of spending and production decisions made by all households, firms, government
agencies, and others in the economy. Unemployment imposes significant personal
costs on individuals and families. It can also place a heavy burden on
governments. Unexpected inflation imposes costs on many people and benefits
some others because it arbitrarily redistributes purchasing power. In the
United States, federal government budgetary policy and the Federal Reserve
System monetary policy influence the overall levels of employment, output, and
prices. The assumptions and values on which economic theory and public policy
are based require careful analysis. In focusing on economics, teachers at
various levels should build upon learners knowledge,
experience, and
developmental capabilities.
Teachers
of the early grades can provide learners with experiences that enable them to
understand the concepts of resources, economic wants, supply and demand, goods
and services, and opportunity costs. They can help learners see that resources
are insufficient to provide everyone with everything they want, that people
make choices that determine how resources are used, and that choice means that
something is given up. Teachers of the middle grades can provide learners with
experiences that enable them to understand the concept of scarcity, that
economic choices involve trad offs, that governments and societies experience
scarcity as well as individuals, and that the choices people make have consequences.
They can help learners realize that the evaluation of choices and opportunity
costs can be subjective in some respects and differs across individuals and societies.
High
school teachers can provide learners with experiences that enable them to
understand the concepts of marginal costs and marginal benefits, how each relates
to decisions concerning production and consumption, and how public policy
affects such decisions. They can assist learners in understanding the economic
components of virtually all public policy decisions.
For further
information, see the parallel documents that were consulted as this standard was
developed: the NCSS theme Production, Distribution, and Consumption in
Expectations of Excellence: Curriculum Standards for Social Studies
(Washington, D.C.NCSS, 1994); Voluntary National Content Standards in Economics
(New York: National Council on Economic Education, 1997).
PSYCHOLOGY
Teachers who are
licensed to teach psychology at all school levels should possess the knowledge,
capabilities, and dispositions to organize and provide instruction at the appropriate
school level for the study of psychology.
Learner Expectations
The study of
psychology and human behavior allows learners to understand major theories that
have been proposed to describe human thinking, learning, memory, development,
personality, and behavior. It helps them address questions such as the
following: Who am I? What factors have contributed to my becoming who I am? How
can I adjust to, cope with, benefit from, and contribute to my own well-being
and to the well-being of others? What is involved in mental and emotional
health, and how can one become and remain mentally and emotionally healthy and
prevent or overcome psychological disorders? How do biological and
environmental factors affect human psychological, emotional, social, and
emotional growth, development, and behavior? How can individual differences be
understood? What are the concepts, approaches, procedures, and principles of
conducting psychological research and reporting findings of research? How does
one accurately interpret and apply the findings from research studies?
Teacher
Expectations
Teachers of
psychology at all school levels should provide developmentally appropriate
experiences as they guide learners in their study. They should:
-
assist
learners in comprehending and applying concepts, theories, and principles associated
with human cognition; emotional, social, and personal development; and growth
and change;
-
guide
learner understanding of human thinking, memory, perception, learning, development,
and behavior;
-
assist
learners in comprehending factors associated with human adjustment and coping
behaviors in various situations, during different stages of life, and in respect
to particular personal and environmental situations;
-
have learners consider how such factors as
memory, thinking, beliefs, emotions, personality, perceptions, attitude, and
abilities affect people decisions and actions at any particular moment;
-
have learners examine factors associated with
the construction, revision, and use of self-concepts and identity and how these
may affect an individual thinking, feelings, decisions, and actions toward
self, others, and the world;
-
have learners examine factors that may have
contributed to their own self-concepts and identity, including how their
family, groups, peers, and communities may have been among these factors;
-
have
learners examine and comprehend factors associated with personality and individual
differences and how personality and individual differences may be described,
classified, assessed, and interpreted;
-
assist
learners to examine, comprehend, and apply ideas associated with mental and
emotional health as well as psychological disorders, including factors contributing
to and the treatment of such disorders; enable learners to understand
interconnections between themselves and particular situations, places, time,
events, and social/cultural environments and systems that may influence them as
well as be influenced by them;
-
insure that learners comprehend, consider the
advantages and disadvantages of, and apply concepts, principles, and procedures
for conducting, monitoring, applying, and interpreting sound psychology
research activities. Insure that learners consider the various codes of ethics
accepted by psychologists regarding the conduct of research on human and animal
subjects and the reporting of research findings; Enable students to engage in
preliminary behavioral science research, using various research paradigms and
perspectives.
School
Applications
In focusing on
the discipline of psychology, teachers at the high school level should build
upon learners knowledge, experience, and developmental capabilities. High
school teachers can provide learners with opportunities to comprehend and apply
specific discipline-based concepts, theories, and principles of human memory,
thinking, learning, development, and behavior to analyzing, interpreting and
explaining. Learners should be encouraged to study personality and individual
differences and commonalities and to consider possible biological, social,
cultural, economic, peer, and family influences on personality, thinking, learning,
and behavior. In addition, learners can be guided in conducting and reporting
psychological research as well as applying the various codes of ethics that
should guide all psychological researchers.
C. PROGRAMMATIC STANDARDS FOR
INITIAL LICENSURE
The standards
already itemized in this document specify the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions
that the National Council for the Social Studies expects social studies
teachers to possess. The Council also expects institutions that prepare social
studies teacher candidates to make available to their students certain programmatic
opportunities that allow these prospective teachers to achieve this knowledge
and these capabilities and dispositions. The five programmatic standards
itemized below are intended to assure that these opportunities are available.
Institutions that prepare students for licensure in the social studies and the
specific disciplines in the social studies field are expected to provide the opportunities
described.
1. SUBSTANTIAL
INSTRUCTION IN ACADEMIC AREAS WITHIN THE SOCIAL
STUDIES FIELD
Institutions
preparing social studies teachers should provide and expect prospective social
studies
teachers to
complete subject matter content courses (history/social science) that include
United
States history,
world history (including both western and non-western civilizations), political
science (including U.S. Government), economics, geography, and behavioral
sciences. The subject matter content course work for those licensed to teach
social studies as a broad field at the secondary school level should include no
less than 40% of a total four-year or extended-preparation program, with an
area of concentration of at least 18 semester hours (24 quarter hours) in one
academic discipline; at the middle school level should include no less than 30%
of a total four-year or extended-preparation program, with an area of
concentration of at least 18 semester hours (24 quarter hours) in one academic
discipline; The subject matter content course work for those licensed to teach
a single discipline of history or a social science at the secondary or middle
school level should include both a discipline major of no less than 30% of a
total four-year or extendedpreparation program; and additional course work
outside of the major selected from each of the content fields specified in this
standard in order to assure that the key concepts from history and the social
science disciplines closely related to the major are studied and integrated
with the major.
2. COURSE OR
COURSES ON TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES
Institutions
preparing social studies teachers should provide and require prospective social
studies
teachers to
complete a course or courses that focus on pedagogical content knowledge that
deals specifically with the nature of the social studies and with ideas,
strategies, and techniques for teaching social studies at the appropriate
licensure level.
The instruction
should
-
be
specific to the teaching of social studies and the disciplines from which
social studies content is drawn;
-
enable
teacher candidates to select, integrate, and translate the content and methods
of investigation of history and the social science disciplines for use in prepare
teacher candidates to use a variety of approaches to instruction that are appropriate
to the nature of social studies content and goals and to use them in diverse
settings and with students with diverse backgrounds, interests, and abilities;
-
be taught by instructors whose professional
experience and education through the graduate level is appropriate both to the
content and goals of social studies and to the level of licensure.
3. QUALIFIED
Social Studies FACULTY
Institutions
preparing social studies teachers should provide faculty in all components of
the program who are recognized as (a) exemplary teachers, (b) scholars in the
fields of social studies
and social
studies education, and (c) informed about middle and secondary school
classrooms and
teaching. The
faculty should
-
demonstrate
teaching that models exemplary practice for their students;
-
be
actively involved in scholarly and professional activities in social studies, history,
the social sciences, and/or social studies education;
-
include
those who have had successful elementary, middle, or secondary school teaching
experience as well as a continuing close relationship with these schools;
-
include
social studies education specialists who are either (1) full-time, tenuretrack faculty
in social studies education who hold a doctoral degree with a major or emphasis
in social studies education, history, or an academic discipline within the
social studies field; or (2) are otherwise comparably qualified for their
roles.
4. CLINICAL
SCHOOL EXPERIENCES IN SOCIAL STUDIES SETTINGS
Institutions
preparing social studies teachers should provide and expect prospective social
studies
teachers to
complete multiple clinical experiences in middle and/or secondary school social
studies
classrooms.
These experiences should begin early in a teacher candidate professional
program and
culminate in an integrative
capstone experience (student teaching) of a substantial amount of time
(typically full
time for a complete semester). Both experiences should be closely supervised by
qualifiedprofessionals.The experiences should. provide opportunities for
participating in school and classroom settings tha include a wide range of
approaches to instruction and classroom organization styles;
. provide
opportunities to teach students of varying socio-economic, racial, and
ethnic backgrounds,
and those with special learning needs and diverse learning
styles;
. be closely
supervised by (a) a licensed and experienced cooperating teacher in a state or
regionally accredited school and (b) a university supervisor with both (a)
successful experience and (b) graduate level study in the teaching of social studies
or an academic discipline in the social studies field.
5. GENERAL
STUDIES
Institutions
preparing social studies teachers should provide and expect prospective social
studies teachers to complete, in addition to professional and major courses, general
arts and science courses that reach across several areas of study, including
language arts, humanities, languages, mathematics, physical sciences, and
technology. The instruction should include central concepts, tools of inquiry,
and the general structure of knowledge associated with the following:
-
Language
Arts
-
Humanities
-
Language
(other than English)
-
Mathematics
-
Physical
Sciences
-
Technology
II. PEDAGOGICAL
STANDARDS Standards
The
pedagogical standards itemized below focus on teacher knowledge, competence,
andmdispositions beyond the subject matter that is the focus of the Subject
Matter Standardsmabove. They are intended to assure that social studies
teachers possess the general pedagogicalm knowledge, capabilities, and
dispositions needed to create the kinds of learning experiences and classroom
and school environments that are envisioned by recent reform movements and
validated by research. As such, these standards favor learner-centered, meaningful,
integrative, value-based, challenging, and active instruction. They see
teachers as instructional decision-makers, members of school-based learning
communities, and members of the larger community of stakeholders who can help
support the learning of students. They are intended to parallel Principles 2 through
10 developed by INTASC. (Each of these standards is described in greater detail
in the document, Model Standards for Beginning Teacher Licensing and
Development: A Resource for State Dialogue, published by the Interstate New
Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC).
1. LEARNING AND
DEVELOPMENT
Social studies
teachers should possess the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions to
provide learning opportunities at the appropriate school levels that support
learners intellectual, social, and personal development.
2. DIFFERENCES
IN LEARNING STYLES
Social studies
teachers should possess the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions to create
at the
appropriate
school levels learning experiences that fit the different approaches to
learning of diverse learners.
3. CRITICAL
THINKING, PROBLEM SOLVING, AND PERFORMANCE SKILLS
Social studies
teachers should possess the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions to use at
the
appropriate school
levels a variety of instructional strategies to encourage student development
of
critical
thinking, problem solving, and performance skills.
4. ACTIVE
LEARNING AND MOTIVATION
Social studies
teachers should possess the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions to create
at the
appropriate
school levels learning environments that encourage social interaction, active
engagement in learning, and self-motivation.
5. INQUIRY,
COLLABORATION, AND SUPPORTIVE CLASSROOM INTERACTION
Social studies
teachers should possess the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions to use at
the appropriate school levels verbal, nonverbal, and media communication
techniques that foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive
interaction in the classroom.
6. PLANNING
INSTRUCTION
Social studies
teachers should possess the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions to plan
instruction for the appropriate school levels based on understanding of subject
matter, students, the community, and curriculum goals.
7. ASSESSMENT
Social studies
teachers should possess the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions to use
formal
and informal
assessment strategies at the appropriate school levels to evaluate and ensure
the Pedagogical Standards continuous intellectual, social, and physical development
of learners. They should be able to assess student learning using various
assessment formats, including performance assessment, fixed response,
open-ended questioning, and portfolio strategies.
8. REFLECTION AND PROFESSIONAL GROWTH
Social studies
teachers should possess the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions to
develop as
reflective
practitioners and continuous learners.
9. PROFESSIONAL LEADERSHIP
Social studies
teachers should possess the knowledge, capabilities, and dispositions to foster
crosssubject matter collaboration and other positive relationships with school
colleagues, and positive associations with parents and others in the larger
community to support student learning and well-being.Three types of evidence
are appropriate for determining whether programs that prepare social studies
teachers meet these NCSS standards:
Programmatic Evidence
Programmatic
evidence provides assurance that each person recommended by a teacher
education unit
for teacher licensure (or certification) has been offered a reasonable
opportunity to
master the knowledge, skills, and dispositions requisite to success as a
social studies
teacher.
Testing Evidence
Testing
evidence, if the testing is demonstrably a valid and reliable measure of the knowledge,
skills, and dispositions described by these standards, provides assurance that
those who have attained passing scores possess the knowledge identified in
these standards as necessary for classroom teaching effectiveness.
Performance Evidence
Performance
evidence provides assurance that those who are judged to have met the performance
criteria can perform effectively as classroom teachers in the areas identified
by these standards. However, evidence of a single type should rarely be viewed
as compelling. Normally, reviewers who use these standards to judge the
preparation of social studies teachers would expect that some evidence of each
type would be provided in making a case that an individual or institution has
met each standard. Although programmatic evidence is likely to provide the
primary documentation that an institution meets the programmatic standards of
this document, testing and performance evidence should show the extent to which
individuals seeking licenses have learned the knowledge and competencies
expected.
PROGRAMMATIC EVIDENCE
Programmatic
evidence that may be provided in order to assure that those who complete teacher
education programs of an institution have had a reasonable opportunity to meet the
expectations of a standard include: documents concerned with the theoretical
design of the program; catalog program descriptions; course descriptions and
syllabi; descriptions of the qualifications, experiences, and training of
course instructors and clinical supervisors; descriptions of clinical
experiences; handbooks; documentation that students engage in the programs, courses,
and experiences provided for them; and evidence that only those who complete
the courses and programs successfully are recommended for licensure (or
certification) as social studies teachers. The evidence should address the
Thematic and/or Disciplinary Standards and the Pedagogical Standards listed
above, as well as the Programmatic Standards.
TESTING EVIDENCE
Testing evidence
that may be provided in order to ensure at an adequate level of confidence that
those who complete teacher education programs of an institution and are
recommended for licenses (or certificates) have the knowledge that will enable
them to show that they meet the expectations of a standard include: passing
scores on nationally norme tests such as the PRAXIS II test of social studies
content knowledge, state examinations, Evidence and course-level evaluations.
In each case the individual or institution submitting the test data is
obligated to provide sufficient evidence of the validity of the data in
relation to these NCSS standards.
PERFORMANCE
EVIDENCE
Performance
evidence has the potential of being the most powerful documentation that these
standards are met, in that it is concerned with the degree to which individuals
who are recommended by an institution for a teaching license (or certificate)
are able to perform successfully all aspects of their social studies teaching
responsibilities. This type of evidence that may attest to teacher competence
may consist of the following: over-time and on-demand observations of
successful teaching, video tapes and/or written records of observations by
observers/supervisors, evidence of successful performance by the students of
the teachers being assessed, written records of the teachers professional
reflections, examples of instructional projects and teaching materials developed
by the teachers, evidence of the teachers abilities to analyze and evaluate their
own teaching, instructional materials, and resources, and examples of the
teachersf strategies for evaluating learning in their classrooms.
Institutions
that seek NCSS approval of their social studies teacher education program(s)
may employ one or both of two forms of performance data: (1) evaluation results
from student teaching or internships in classrooms and (2) portfolio based
documentation of student teaching or internship performances. Both forms of
data must address each standard and are expected to include descriptions of teaching
and assessment results of the success of that teaching. The data should report
on the individual performances of a cohort of candidates, but should not
include the actual student teaching evaluation assessment forms or the actual
contents of individual candidate portfolios. An institution may choose to
submit selected sample portfolios and summary data. If portfolios are used,
they should also submit information concerning the process by and rigor with
which portfolios are assessed.
Bab 3 How Can the Curriculum Facilitate (or
Hinder) Collaboration?
Collaboration is
an essential element in establishing a school or classroom climate that
promotes working together to accomplish common goals. Individuals and organizations
can accomplish tasks more successfully when working together collaboratively. In
today’s world, teachers and students deal with complex issues such as conflict,
bullying, and stereotyping. A successful approach to resolving such issues
involves working together to understand differences in perspective, beliefs, and
understandings. Collaboration is critical in an effective social studies
program, especially given the fact that the social studies curriculum includes
teaching students Interpersonal and other social skills.
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